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The skin is the outer covering of the body, also known as the epidermis, of an animal. It is the largest organ of the integumentary system made up of multiple layers of epithelial tissues, and guards the underlying muscles, bones, ligaments, internal organs.[1] The adjective cutaneous literally means "of the skin" (from Latin cutis, skin).

Because it interfaces with the environment, skin plays a very important role in protecting (the body) against pathogens. Its other functions are insulation, temperature regulation, sensation, synthesis of vitamin D, and the protection of vitamin B folates. Severely damaged skin will try to heal by forming scar tissue. This is often discolored and depigmented.

In humans, skin pigmentation varies among populations, and skin type can range from dry to oily.

SKIN COMPONENTS

Skin has pigmentation, or melanin, provided by melanocytes, which absorb some of the potentially dangerous ultraviolet radiation (UV) in sunlight. It also contains DNA-repair enzymes that help reverse UV damage, and people who lack the genes for these enzymes suffer high rates of skin cancer. One form predominantly produced by UV light, malignant melanoma, is particularly invasive, causing it to spread quickly, and can often be deadly. Human skin pigmentation varies among populations in a striking manner. This has led to the classification of people(s) on the basis of skin color.[2]

Mammalian skin often contains hairs, which in sufficient density is called fur. The hair mainly serves to augment the insulation the skin provides, but can also serve as a secondary sexual characteristic or as camouflage. On some animals, the skin is very hard and thick, and can be processed to create leather. Reptiles and fish have hard protective scales on their skin for protection, and birds have hard feathers, all made of tough β-keratins. Amphibian skin is not a strong barrier to passage of chemicals and is often subject to osmosis. A frog sitting in an anesthetic solution could quickly go to sleep.

The skin is often known as the largest organ of the human body. This applies to exterior surface, as it covers the body, appearing to have the largest surface area of all the organs. For the average adult human, the skin has a surface area of between 1.5-2.0 square meters (16.1-21.5 sq ft.), most of it is between 2-3 mm (0.10 inch) thick. The average square inch (6.5 cm²) of skin holds 650 sweat glands, 20 blood vessels, 60,000 melanocytes, and more than a thousand nerve endings.

Skin performs the following functions:

Protection: an anatomical barrier from pathogens and damage between the internal and external environment in bodily defense; Langerhans cells in the skin are part of the adaptive immune system.
Sensation: contains a variety of nerve endings that react to heat and cold, touch, pressure, vibration, and tissue injury; see somatosensory system and haptics.
Heat regulation: the skin contains a blood supply far greater than its requirements which allows precise control of energy loss by radiation, convection and conduction. Dilated blood vessels increase perfusion and heat loss while constricted vessels greatly reduce cutaneous blood flow and conserve heat. Erector pili muscles are significant in animals.
Control of evaporation: the skin provides a relatively dry and impermeable barrier to fluid loss. Loss of this function contributes to the massive fluid loss in burns.
Aesthetics and communication: others see our skin and can assess our mood, physical state and attractiveness.
Storage and synthesis: acts as a storage center for lipids and water, as well as a means of synthesis of vitamin D by action of UV on certain parts of the skin.
Excretion: sweat contains urea, however its concentration is 1/130th that of urine, hence excretion by sweating is at most a secondary function to temperature regulation.
Absorption: Oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide can diffuse into the epidermis in small amounts, some animals using their skin for their sole respiration organ. In addition, medicine can be administered through the skin, by ointments or by means of adhesive patch, such as the nicotine patch or iontophoresis. The skin is an important site of transport in many other organisms.
Water resistance: The skin acts as a water resistant barrier so essential nutrients aren't washed out of the body.

 

HYGIENE

Unclean skin favors the development of pathogenic organisms – the dead cells that continually slough off of the epidermis mix with the secretions of the sweat and sebaceous glands and the dust found on the skin to form a filthy layer on its surface. If not washed away, the slurry of sweat and sebaceous secretions mixed with dirt and dead skin is decomposed by bacterial flora, producing a foul smell. Functions of the skin are disturbed when it is excessively dirty; it becomes more easily damaged, the release of antibacterial compounds decreases, and dirty skin is more prone to develop infections. Cosmetics should be used carefully because these may cause allergic reactions. Each season requires suitable clothing in order to facilitate the evaporation of the sweat. Sunlight, water and air play an important role in keeping the skin healthy.

The skin supports its own ecosystems of microorganisms, including yeasts and bacteria, which cannot be removed by any amount of cleaning. Estimates place the number of individual bacteria on the surface of one square inch (6.5 square cm) of human skin at 50 million though this figure varies greatly over the average 20 feet2 (1.9 m²) of human skin. Oily surfaces, such as the face, may contain over 500 million bacteria per square inch (6.5 cm²). Despite these vast quantities, all of the bacteria found on the skin's surface would fit into a volume the size of a pea. In general, the microorganisms keep one another in check and are part of a healthy skin. When the balance is disturbed, there may be an overgrowth and infection, such as when antibiotics kill microbes, resulting in an overgrowth of yeast. The skin is continuous with the inner epithelial lining of the body at the orifices, each of which supports its own complement of microbes.

Oily skin is caused by over-active glands, that produce a substance called sebum, a naturally healthy skin lubricant. When the skin produces excessive sebum, it becomes heavy and thick in texture. Oily skin is typified by shininess, blemishes and pimples. The oily-skin type is not necessarily bad, since such skin is less prone to wrinkling, or other signs of aging,because the oil helps to keep needed moisture locked into the epidermis (outermost layer of skin).

The negative aspect of the oily-skin type is that oily complexions are especially susceptible to clogged pores, blackheads, and buildup of dead skin cells on the surface of the skin.Oily skin can be sallow and rough in texture and tends to have large, clearly visible pores everywhere, except around the eyes and neck
The goal of treating oily skin is to remove excess surface sebum without complete removal of skin lipids. Severe degreasing treatment can foster an actual worsening of sebum secretion, which defeats the aim of the cleansing. A method of cleansing oily skin is to wash with a solution of a mild synthetic detergent containing no oils, waxes or other lipid agents that could aggravate the oily condition of the skin, sometimes combined with a toning lotion. Such a product removes the oily residue and debris from the skin surface. Some cleansing products have lower concentrations of hydroxy acids, which remove dead cells from the upper levels of the stratum corneum.Those products should be used on a regular basis to work adequately. A light moisturizer may be included in a product to counteract any drying effects of the cleanser.

AGING

As skin ages, it becomes thinner and more easily damaged. Intensifying this effect is the decreasing ability of skin to heal itself as a person ages.

Skin aging is caused by the fall in elasticity. Aging skin also receives less blood flow and lower gland activity.

 

Variability in skin tone

Individuals with ancestors from different parts of the world can have highly visible differences in skin pigmentation. Individuals with Sub-Saharan African ancestry (black people) tend towards darker skin, while those of Northern European descent (white people) have paler skin. Between these extremes are individuals of Asian, South-East Asian, Native American, Middle Eastern, Polynesian and Melanesian descent.

The skin of black people has more variation in color from one part of the body to another than does the skin of other racial groups, particularly the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. Part of this is the result of the variations in the thickness of the skin or different parts of the body. The thicker the skin, the more layers of cell with melanin in them, and the darker the color.[5] In addition, these parts of the body do not have melanin-producing cells.

Darker skin hinders UV A rays from penetrating. Since vitamin B folats are degraded by UV A and vitamin D is synthesized different skin tones are more likely to produce different vitamin deficiencies.

Skin types

Main article: skin type
Skin can be classified based on its reaction to ultraviolet radiation:[6]

Type Definition Description

 
I Always burns but never tans Pale skin, red hair, freckles
II Usually burns, sometimes tans Fair Skin
III May burn, usually tans Darker Skin
IV Rarely burns, always tans Mediterranean
V Moderate constitutional pigmentation Latin American, Middle Eastern, Maori and Polynesian
VI Marked constitutional pigmentation Black

Animal skin products

The term skin refers to the covering of a small animal, such as a sheep, goat (goatskin), pig, snake (snakeskin) etc or the young of a large animal.

The term hides or rawhide refers to the covering of a large adult animal such as a cow, buffalo, horse etc.

Skins and hides from different animals are used for clothing, bags and other consumer products, usually in the form of leather, but also furs.

Skin can also be used to make products such as gelatin, glue and wool. Mucus of skin from hagfish is still under research.

Skin layers

Skin is composed of three primary layers:

the epidermis, which provides waterproofing and serves as a barrier to infection;
the dermis, which serves as a location for the appendages of skin; and
the hypodermis (subcutaneous adipose layer).

Epidermis

Epidermis, "epi" coming from the Greek meaning "over" or "upon", is the outermost layer of the skin. It forms the waterproof, protective wrap over the body's surface and is made up of stratified squamous epithelium with an underlying basal lamina.

The epidermis contains no blood vessels, and cells in the deepest layers are nourished by diffusion from blood capillaries extending to the upper layers of the dermis. The main type of cells which make up the epidermis are Merkel cells, keratinocytes, with melanocytes and Langerhans cells also present. The epidermis can be further subdivided into the following strata (beginning with the outermost layer): corneum, lucidum (only in palms of hands and bottoms of feet), granulosum, spinosum, basale. Cells are formed through mitosis at the basale layer. The daughter cells (see cell division) move up the strata changing shape and composition as they die due to isolation from their blood source. The cytoplasm is released and the protein keratin is inserted. They eventually reach the corneum and slough off (desquamation). This process is called keratinization and takes place within about 27 days. This keratinized layer of skin is responsible for keeping water in the body and keeping other harmful chemicals and pathogens out, making skin a natural barrier to infection.

 

Optical Coherence Tomography tomogram of fingertip, depicting stratum corneum (~500µm thick) with stratum disjunctum on top and stratum lucidum (connection to stratum spinosum) in the middle. At the bottom superficial parts of the dermis. Sweatducts are clearly visible.

Components

The epidermis contains no blood vessels, and is nourished by diffusion from the dermis. The main type of cells which make up the epidermis are keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells and Merkels cells. The epidermis helps the skin to regulate body temperature.[citation needed]

Layers

Epidermis is divided into several layers where cells are formed through mitosis at the innermost layers. They move up the strata changing shape and composition as they differentiate and become filled with keratin. They eventually reach the top layer called stratum corneum and are sloughed off, or desquamated. This process is called keratinization and takes place within weeks. The outermost layer of the epidermis consists of 25 to 30 layers of dead cells.

 

Sublayers
Epidermis is divided into the following 5 sublayers or strata:

Stratum corneum
Stratum lucidum
Stratum granulosum
Stratum spinosum
Stratum germinativum (also called "stratum basale")
Mnemonics that are good for remembering the layers of the skin (using "stratum basale" instead of "stratum germinativum"):

"Cher Likes Getting Skin Botoxed" (from superficial to deep)
"Before Signing, Get Legal Counsel" (from deep to superficial)
Blood capillaries are found beneath the epidermis, and are linked to an arteriole and a venule. Arterial shunt vessels may bypass the network in ears, the nose and fingertips.

Dermis

 
 
The distribution of the bloodvessels in the skin of the sole of the foot. (Corium - TA alternate term for dermis - is labeled at upper right.)
 

Dermis

The dermis is the layer of skin beneath the epidermis that consists of connective tissue and cushions the body from stress and strain. The dermis is tightly connected to the epidermis by a basement membrane. It also harbors many Mechanoreceptor/nerve endings that provide the sense of touch and heat. It contains the hair follicles, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, apocrine glands, lymphatic vessels and blood vessels. The blood vessels in the dermis provide nourishment and waste removal to its own cells as well as the Stratum basale of the epidermis.

The dermis is structurally divided into two areas: a superficial area adjacent to the epidermis, called the papillary region, and a deep thicker area known as the reticular region.

Papillary region

The papillary region is composed of loose areolar connective tissue. It is named for its fingerlike projections called papillae, that extend toward the epidermis. The papillae provide the dermis with a "bumpy" surface that interdigitates with the epidermis, strengthening the connection between the two layers of skin.

In the palms, fingers, soles, and toes, the influence of the papillae projecting into the epidermis forms contours in the skin's surface. These are called friction ridges, because they help the hand or foot to grasp by increasing friction. Friction ridges occur in patterns (see: fingerprint) that are genetically and epigenetically determined and are therefore unique to the individual, making it possible to use fingerprints or footprints as a means of identification.

Reticular region

The reticular region lies deep in the papillary region and is usually much thicker. It is composed of dense irregular connective tissue, and receives its name from the dense concentration of collagenous, elastic, and reticular fibers that weave throughout it. These protein fibers give the dermis its properties of strength, extensibility, and elasticity.

Also located within the reticular region are the roots of the hair, sebaceous glands, sweat glands, receptors, nails, and blood vessels.

Tattoo ink is held in the dermis. Stretch marks from pregnancy are also located in the dermis.

Hypodermis

The hypodermis is not part of the skin, and lies below the dermis. Its purpose is to attach the skin to underlying bone and muscle as well as supplying it with blood vessels and nerves. It consists of loose connective tissue and elastin. The main cell types are fibroblasts, macrophages and adipocytes (the hypodermis contains 50% of body fat). Fat serves as padding and insulation for the body.

Microorganisms like Staphylococcus epidermidis colonize the skin surface. The density of skin flora depends on region of the skin. The disinfected skin surface gets recolonized from bacteria residing in the deeper areas of the hair follicle, gut and urogenital openings.




Acid mantle
Anthropodermic bibliopegy
Artificial skin
Callus - thick area of skin
Cosmetics and cosmetic surgery
Cutaneous structure development
Diseases - list of skin diseases
Dermatology - branch of medicine
Fingerprint - skin on fingertips
Hair - including hair follicles in skin
Skin color
Hyperpigmentation - about excess skin color
Meissner's corpuscle
Nails - fingernails or toenails
Pacinian corpuscle
Polyphenol antioxidant
Sweat - description of perspiration
Superficial fascia

ALLERGY

Allergy is a condition characterised by a level of sensitivity greater than normal to a specific substance or group of substances. These substances, called allergens, trigger a response in susceptible children. They can enter the body through various routes like inhalation, ingestion, injection, and external skin contact......full text

SOM NEWS

Skin tumours in low birth weight babies

Low birth weight of infants may be the leading risk factor for reddish skin tumours called infantile haemangiomas.

Infantile haemangiomas are non-cancerous tumours that can grow rapidly during infancy, but usually resolve by 9 years of age. Haemangiomas are the most common tumours in infants and beside cosmetic concerns, most have no medical significance. However, some may cause medical problems or permanent scarring.

Researchers from America studied 420 children with infantile haemangiomas and 353 children in the control group to elucidate features influencing the development if infantile haemangiomas.

Several risk factors were found including female sex, caucasian race, and preterm birth. However, being born with low birth weight rather than being born prematurely per se was the most significant risk factor for developing infantile haemangiomas. For every 500 gm decrease in birth weight, the likelihood of the birthmarks rose by 40 percent. Genetics may also play a role. Children with infantile haemangiomas were twice as likely as children without it to have an affected mother or other close relative (33 percent v/s 15 percent).

The researchers co

 

 

NEW TEST 2 DIAGNOSE TB

A new blood test, Enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISpot), is found to be more effective in diagnosing tuberculosis (TB) than the traditional skin tests.

Tuberculosis is an infectious bacterial disease, which typically attacks the lungs and affects about 9.2 million more people each year, killing an estimated 1.7 million. Most of the victims are in developing countries where limited means of screening for the disease lead to delay in treatment.

Traditional testing for TB involves injecting a person with components of the TB bacterium and resultant swelling of the skin is considered to be a signal to dormant tuberculosis. Such skin tests, however, are prone to false positives as at times, people have been wrongly identified as needing treatment and conversely, people actually infected with TB have wrongly found to be free of the infection.

This immunoassay detects a chemical secreted by a type of lymphocytes (T-cells) in response to a protein not found in the BCG vaccine and most environmental Mycobacteria. The test results are therefore not confounded by previous BCG vaccination, conferring higher specificity than the tuberculin skin test. Moreover, results are available the next day.

To find out the effectiveness of the new ELISpot in comparison to the skin test, researchers from Britain studied 908 healthy children exposed to tuberculosis in their homes. The researchers used the traditional skin test and the newly developed ELISpot test for screening the children. A little over half the participants were tested positive for latent TB using the two tests.

The skin test suggested 580 children required drugs to ward off active TB, but the blood test pointed to just 380. Twelve children developed active TB even with treatment. This suggests that ELISpot is 1.5 times better at spotting tuberculosis carriers than the skin test.

The researchers noted that findings are really useful in the sense that by using the blood test one only needs to treat 380 children instead of 550 children to prevent the same number of active cases.

The next step is to make the new test even more accurate and establish its use in the developing world.

FISH PROTECTS SKIN FROM ECZEMA

Feeding babies one portion of fish before they are 9 months old cuts their risk of developing eczema.

Eczema is a chronic condition affecting between 10 and 15 percent of children that can cause the skin to become itchy, red, dry and cracked. It often affects those prone to allergies. Researchers from Sweden studied 17,000 babies to track the long-term health benefits of having fish in the diet.

It was found that introducing fish of any type into the diet curbed the risk of contracting eczema by 25 percent compared with children who never ate it. There was no link with the amount of fish or type of fish but the timing of the introduction was important i.e. early introduction. Genes played an important role in the development of eczema but breast-feeding and keeping a furry pet in the house had no effect. There was no extra protection from fish rich in omega-3 fatty acids, which provided other health benefits.

Though it can be concluded that fish in the diet is important, however, further investigation is required to establish the reason.

ANITI- OXIDANTS FOR HEALTHY SKIN

A cream containing vitamin C, vitamin E and ferulic acid protects the skin from sun damage and reduces cancer-associated mutations in skin cells.

Ultraviolet radiation damages the skin by causing oxidative stress. Previous studies have shown that vitamin C and vitamin E are individually effective in boosting antioxidant protection, and even more effective when used together and that ferulic acid, a plant antioxidant, increases the antioxidant effects of the vitamins even further.

To find out whether or not topical applications of antioxidants help neutralise this damage, researchers from America tested the impact of a cream containing 15 percent vitamin C, 1 percent vitamin E, and 0.5 percent ferulic acid on human skin. They applied the cream to nine adults and then exposed them to simulated sun irradiation.

It was found that compared to a cream with no active ingredients, the ferulic acid cream reduced skin redness after sun exposure and caused fewer skin cells to sunburn. The active cream almost completely blocked the production of thymine dimers, a type of UV-related genetic damage, as well as the induction of the tumor suppressor gene p53. Further, while unprotected skin exposed to UV radiation produced substances called cytokines that promote inflammation and suppress immune system function, protected skin did not.

The above findings suggest that the antioxidant cream could be used as a supplement to sunscreen, providing maximal photoprotection of the skin.

SOME SKIN ALLERGY TESTS GIVE LATE RESULTS

 
Some patients may have delayed allergic patch tests reactions that are not identified during the customary of 5 days reading.

The patch tests involve keeping a sample of a suspected allergy-causing substance, or allergen, in place next to the skin, and seeing if a reaction develops. Researchers from America studied to identify which allergens showed positive reactions after day 5. They studied the medical record of patients who had underwent patch testing for suspected allergy contact and returned for delayed readings between 7 to 10 days or beyond. A total of 843 patients reaction were interpreted on day 5 and at least once during 7 days interval.

Researchers found that 170 allergens that had been tested in at least 50 patients, 117 had reactions that differed on day 5 when compared with days 7 to 21. Only 14 allergens had significantly higher late positive reaction rates. The allergens with higher delayed positive reactions included some metals, antibiotics, and a few preservatives. On the other hand, some positive reactions on day 5 were found negative when checked later.

It has been concluded that late patch test readings were useful when interpreting reactions to metals and topical antibiotics but it was not useful in the diagnosis of reactions to other allergens. Because reactions to certain fragrance and preservative allergens may dissipate after 5 days, patch test reactions therefore are optimally read at days 3 and 5, but an additional reading on day 7 or beyond is useful if patch tests to metals and topical antibiotics are performed.
 

 

COCOA BUTTER NOT EFFECTIVE FOR STRECH MARKS

Despite the age-old belief, applying cocoa butter lotion during pregnancy does not help women in preventing stretch marks.

Stretch marks or striae gravidarum typically occur on the abdomen and breasts, but can also appear on the hips, thighs, and buttocks. The cause of the problem is unknown, but many women believe that rubbing cocoa butter on the skin can help prevent the marks. Although scientific evidence supporting the use of cocoa butter is lacking, many physicians and midwives continue to recommend it.

To assess whether or not application of cocoa butter lotion reduces the development of striae gravidarum, researchers from Lebanon examined the stretch marks that arose in 210 pregnant women who were randomly assigned to apply cocoa butter or inactive placebo to their abdomen, breasts, and thighs once daily starting during the first trimester of pregnancy. Eight three percent of the participants completed the study.

It was found that 45 percent of cocoa butter-treated women developed stretch marks compared with 49 percent of women given placebo lotion. Although the percentage is slightly lower in the cocoa butter group, the difference was not considered significant by the researchers. Moreover, there was also no difference between the groups in the severity of their stretch marks.

The findings do not support the use of cocoa butter lotion for the prevention of striae gravidarum. Further studies are expected to evaluate the effectiveness of other commonly used products in preventing stretch marks.

Delaying cow milk may not prevent allergy

 
Delaying the introduction of cow milk and other semi-solid foods into an infant’s diet does not decrease the risk of developing allergies in the first 2 years of life.

It’s a common belief that the later you introduce cow milk and semi-solid food into an infant’s diet, the better it is for the child’s overall health. However, there is little scientific evidence on timing of solid-food introduction in infants and its association with the development of allergy.

To investigate the associations between the introduction of cow milk products/other solid food products and risk of developing atopic eczema, researchers in Netherlands analysed data from 2558 infants. The mothers provided information late in pregnancy and at 3, 7, 12, and 24 months after delivery regarding introduction of cow milk products and other food products and any allergy symptoms (eczema or allergic dermatitis) they experienced. The infants’ blood was tested for sensitisation to allergens at 2 years of age.

It was found that delaying the introduction of cow milk products beyond 9 months significantly increased the risk of eczema, a chronic skin condition characterised by chronic inflammation of the skin resulting in itchy dry patches. The delayed introduction of other semi-solid food products for more than 7 months also markedly increased the risk of eczema as well as the risk of atopic dermatitis and recurrent wheeze.

The results did not vary when infants with early symptoms of eczema and recurrent wheezing were excluded.

The findings suggest that although breastfeeding remains the best food for the infant's health, delaying the introduction of cow milk or other food products may not be favourable in preventing the development of allergies.

 

Corticosteroid creams ineffective for sunburn

 
Corticosteroid creams and ointments do not provide much help in treating acute sunburn.

Topical corticosteroids, like hydrocortisone and betamethasone, are effective for inflammatory skin conditions such as eczema. Sunburns are the manifestation of an inflammatory reaction to damage from ultraviolet (UV) light, but earlier studies have come to conflicting conclusions about the effect of topical corticosteroid treatment on acute sunburn.

To investigate, researchers studied 20 healthy, sun-sensitive volunteers to test whether or not topical corticosteroids could offer quick sunburn relief. All participants had their upper backs exposed to UV-emitting lamps; some areas of their skin were treated beforehand with a moderate- or high-strength corticosteroid cream, while other areas were treated 6 and 23 hours after the UV exposure. One area of skin was left untreated. Then the volunteers' sunburns were examined one hour after the last corticosteroid application. It was found that in areas of skin treated before UV exposure, the creams did seem to lessen redness. However, the creams did not help in treating skin after UV exposure.

The findings suggest that topical corticosteroids have no effect in treating sunburn. This could be because once the sunburn is visible, it becomes too late for corticosteroids to be effective. So, sunburn sufferers can try to find relief by using pain medication, and after-sun lotions can cool the skin and offer a temporary reprieve. However, the severity of the acute sunburn will be the same whether you use topical corticosteroids or not.

 

Clinging to mothers helps babies bear pain

 


 
Clinging to mother's bare skin can help tiny preterm babies recover more quickly from the pain of being stuck with needles and other procedures.

Skin-to-skin contact with their mother, referred to as kangaroo mother care (KMC), has been shown to be effective in reducing pain in three previous studies involving older babies.

To determine if KMC would also be effective in preterm newborns, researchers in Canada studied 61 preterm babies born between 28 and 31 weeks. Such preterm babies spend many weeks in neonatal intensive care units and are often subjected to painful medical procedures. Parents and nurses alike find it very distressing. Half the newborns were assigned to KMC and half to the usual condition of being swaddled in an incubator. In the experimental condition, the infant was held in KMC for 15 minutes prior to and throughout the heel lance procedure. Then the babies' responses were measured using the Premature Infant Pain Profile, which measures grimacing, maximum heart rate and blood oxygen saturation levels. Continuous video, heart rate and oxygen saturation monitoring were recorded during the procedure and were subsequently analysed. It was found that the pain response in very preterm neonates was reduced by skin-to-skin maternal contact. This response is not as powerful as it is in older preterm babies, but the shorter recovery time using KMC is important in helping maintain the baby's health.

The findings showed that the cuddled babies had recovered from the pain in about a minute and a half, while the incubator babies were still suffering more than three minutes after the procedure. This delay could make a significant difference to the health of a very preterm baby.
 

Migraine related to painful skin problems

 
Sensitive skin sensations and pain are more common among patients with migraine compared to those with other types of headache.

Cutaneous allodynia (CA) is the pain resulting from an innocuous stimulus to normal skin or scalp. Even daily activities like combing or brushing the hair, shaving, showering, and wearing glasses or earrings, can provoke the pain. The pain results from a short lived increase in the responsiveness of the central pain neurons that process information arising from the skin. This condition is more common in those suffering from severe headaches like migraine than other headaches.

To look into the relationship between chronic headaches and cutaneous allodynia, British researchers mailed questionnaires to a random sample of 24,000 headache sufferers. The questionnaire included the Allodynia Symptom Checklist (ASC) as well as measures of headache features, disability, and other illnesses. 16,573 individuals returned complete surveys and these were analysed.

It was found that 69 percent of migraine patients had cutaneous allodynia, compared with just 37 percent of patients with other types of chronic headache. Severe allodynia was noted in 12-29 percent of migraine patients, but in no more than 6 percent of patients with other types of headache. The symptoms of cutaneous allodynia were higher in individuals with major depression. In migraine patients, allodynia was found to be associated with high attack frequency, long disease duration and obesity.

The results showed that allodynia was more common among women and those suffering from migraines had a higher risk of developing cutaneous allodynia than others.

The researchers suggested that individuals with allodynia should be more aggressively treated in order to prevent migraine progression.